The Inner Planets

 The Inner Planets

    The four inner planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. They are closest to the sun in the solar system. These planets are also called the "rocky planets."
    Mercury is the second-smallest planet. It is the closest one to the sun. Mercury is about the same size as the moon. It is the fastest moving planet.
    Venus is the second planet from the sun. It is the hottest planet in the solar system. Venus looks like Earth. It is about the same size. Venus is called "the morning star" or "the evening star." Venus can easily be seen at dawn or at dusk.
    Earth is the third planet from the sun. It is the fifth-largest planet. It has one moon. Earth is the only known planet on which there is life. Earth rotates on an imaginary, or a pretend, line. This line is called an axis. Earth leans, or tilts, on this axis. The tilting causes different parts of the Earth to face the sun at different times of the day and year. As a result, we have morning, afternoon, and evening in a day as well as four seasons in a year.
    Mars is known as the "red planet." It is the fourth planet in order from the sun and has two moons. It takes 687 days for Mars to orbit the sun. Like Earth, Mars has seasons. Since it takes Mars longer to orbit the sun, its seasons are longer.

Woven Poetry

 Woven Poetry

    Have you ever seen a tapestry? A tapestry is a heavy cloth that has a design or picture woven into it. Tapestries often are used as wall hangings. They also are used as furniture coverings.

    In creating a tapestry, threads are stretched on a loom. Then colorful threads are woven over and under them. Wool is the most commonly used thread for tapestries. Silk, gold, and silver also have been used.

    The art of tapestry has a long history throughout the world. Tapestries were made in ancient Egypt and China, among other places. In the 1500s, an era of tapestry-making began in northern Europe. Tapestries often were designed and woven in sets of panels. The 1800s saw a revival of the ancient methods and designs in England.

    Artists would design and paint full-scale patterns for weavers. These patterns were called cartoons. Great painters would create cartoons for the designers and weavers. They sometimes created tapestries with images similar to paintings on canvas. By the 1900s, artists such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse were creating designs for weavings.

    Today weavers often design tapestries. Many artists weave them on commission, or by request. People commission tapestries that reflect their interests and tastes. These artworks add warmth to a room. They also lend a special feeling of comfort and beauty. To many people throughout the ages, a tapestry is a kind of woven poetry.

The Solar System Introduction

 The Solar System Introduction

    The solar system is made up of the sun, nine planets, and many moons. All but two of the planets have at least one moon. Asteroids, meteoroids, and comets are part of the solar system, too. The sun is the center of our solar system. Earth orbits around the sun.
    There are nine planets: four inner planets and five outer planets. The inner planets orbit close to the sun. They are called the "rocky planets." They are made up mostly of rock. They have a few or no moons. The five outer planets orbit far from the sun. Most of them are made up of gases. All of the outer planets except one have many moons.
    Asteroids are a part of the solar system. They are made up of rock. Some people call them the "minor planets." Meteoroids are part of the solar system. They are smaller than asteroids, about the size of a pebble. The solar system includes comets. They are made up of gas, ice, and dust. They have long, thin orbits. They warm up as they go around the sun. Comets form heads and tails. Their tails are made of dust and ice. They look like falling stars in the sky.
    The United States sends spacecraft to explore the solar system. There is still much to learn about the sun, the planets, and other objects in our solar system.

Picture This

 Picture This

    Imagine that you are sitting in a darkened room that has a tiny round window, barely the size of a quarter. The window allows some light to enter, perhaps from a moonlit forest, casting an image of trees on the wall opposite the window. This is the basic principle on which a camera operates.

    A camera consists of three main elements that are similar to the parts of a human eye. All cameras contain a device called a shutter. The shutter allows light to enter the camera, just as you use your eyelids to let in or shut out light. Oh some cameras, photographers control the amount of light by altering the length of time the shutter remains open.

    These cameras have a diaphragm, which also controls the amount of light entering the camera. The diaphragm is like the iris of your eye, which expands or contracts to limit the amount of light entering it.

    Light that enters a camera passes through a curved piece of glass or plastic that bends and focuses the light onto the film. This curved piece is called a lens, and unlike the lens of a human eye, it cannot alter its shape. In some cameras, the lens can be moved in and out to focus on an image on the film. The lens is moved inward to focus on distant objects and outward to focus on objects that are close.

    A camera lens causes rays of light to narrow and then create images on film. Because the light bends, the image is upside down. This is similar to the lens of a human eye, which registers an image upside down that is corrected by the brain. In a camera, the image is stored on film and is corrected when the film is developed.

The Constellations

 The Constellations

    Some stars are in groups. From Earth, they form a pattern. A star pattern is called a constellation. The night sky has about 88 constellations.
    One is the Big Dipper. The Big Dipper is a group of seven stars. These seven stars form a dipper. A dipper is a big spoon. It looks like a gravy ladle. These stars form the handle. Four stars form the cup.
    The Big Dipper is easy to find in the night sky. This is because its stars are very bright. The best time to see the Big Dipper is in the middle of summer. Look in the northern sky. First, find the handle. Then it will be easy to see the cup.
    We can use the Big Dipper to find other things in the sky. The two stars on the front of its cup line up with the Little Dipper. The Little Dipper is smaller than the Big Dipper. Its cup hangs down from its handle. Look for a bright star at the end of the Little Dipper's handle. That is the North Star. When we look at it, we know that we are facing north.

Against the Wind

Against the Wind

    Although Beryl Markham was born in England, she grew up and spent the majority of her life in Africa. She was a famous racehorse trainer when she became enchanted with the thought of flying planes.

    Markham began taking flying lessons, and after only eight hours of lessons, she flew her first solo flight. She went on to earn her pilot's license, which allowed her to carry passengers in her plane. Markham delivered mail and supplies in her plane and flew sick patients to the hospital. She flew thousands of miles over African jungles. A pilot friend called her "a fine pilot with great courage who could find her way in a plane to any spot."

    Markham soon decided to strive for something no woman had yet accomplished--flying solos across the Atlantic from east to west. Amelia Earhart had made a solo flight across the Atlantic from west to east with the wind behind her plane. Markham wanted to fly in the opposite direction with the winds against her, making the crossing lengthier and much more dangerous than Earhart's flight.

    In 1936, Markham took off from England in a plane with no radio. Soon after she left England, however, the wind swept her map out of her hands and into the ocean. She flew "blindly" for 19 hours through darkness and stormy weather.

    At one point, as the weather got worse and lightning flashed, Markham realized that she was flying upside down. She was able to turn the aircraft right side up. Finally, when a fuel line froze, Markham crash-landed in Nova Scotia, Canada. She did not fly all the way from England to America, according to her original plan. However, Markham became the first woman to make a solo nonstop flight from east to west across the Atlantic.

A Wise Teacher

 A Wise Teacher

    Centuries ago, in a village in China, there lived a wise teacher named Chung who was famous for his amazing ability to train dogs. All dogs trusted him, and Chung could teach them to do fantastic tricks. One afternoon, Chung took one of his dogs to the town square, where they attracted a crowd. Standing among the people was a boy named Ming, who attentively watched Chung and his dog. As Chung sang a tune and snapped his fingers, the dog danced on its hind legs. Afterward, everyone applauded, and Chung fed his dog a treat and patted him affectionately.
    Ming longed to train dogs as Chung did, so he took home a stray dog named Bo. Then Ming sang a tune, snapped his fingers, and said, "Dance for me, Bo!" However, the dog looked confused! Ming repeated his directions more loudly, and the dog hid behind a tree. Ming continued trying, but got the same result, so after several days, he visited Chung to ask him why his dog was not performing.
    Chung listened carefully and said, "My son, a teacher must be kind, patient, and affectionate. He must reward his student for obeying directions." Ming understood Chung's advice and thanked him. From then on, he was kind, patient, and affectionate to Bo and rewarded him often. Then Ming was rewarded when Bo learned to perform many wonderful tricks!

Why was Chung a wise teacher?

Why was Ming unsuccessful at first?

Some Facts to Chew On

 Some Facts to Chew On

    Did you know that chewing gum has been around for more than 900 years? The ancient Greeks chewed gum made of fresh and New England Native Americans chewed gum made of sap from spruce trees.

    Today, making gum is a huge industry. Gum flavors range from peppermint to hot chili pepper. Most recipes for chewing gum contain some basic ingredients--a gum base, sweeteners, and flavorings. The base gives gum a smooth texture. In earlier times, gum base was made from the sap of a tree found in Mexico and Guatemala. Now, the base is manufactured to keep the costs low.

    The sweeteners usually are sugar and corn syrup. In sugar-free gums, artificial sweeteners replace the sugar and corn syrups. For the mint flavoring alone, huge areas of farmland are used for growing mint plants. Other flavorings are manufactured in a lab.

    Gum makers like to keep recipes secret, but the process is about the same. First, the base is prepared. This step takes the longest. The base is melted in a steam cooker. Then it's pumped through a high-speed machine that cleans out any dirt, bark, and other unwanted items.

    After this, factory workers mix the gum base, sugar, corn syrup, and flavoring such as spearmint, cinnamon, or peppermint. A batch of gum generally is 20 percent base, 63 percent sugar, 16 percent corn syrup, and 1 percent flavoring.

    While the mixture is still warm, workers run it between pairs of rollers coated on both sides with powdered sugar to keep the gum from sticking. The final pair of rollers has knives that cut the gum into sticks. A machine then wraps each stick of gum.

    It's evident that Americans enjoy the results of this process. Each of us chews an average of 300 sticks a year.

A Question of Time

 A Question of Time

    Jason used to spend Saturday afternoons with his Uncle Robert. His parents both worked in a restaurant downtown, and on Saturdays they were busy all day long.
    Then a few weeks ago, Uncle Robert told Jason that he had become a volunteer at an organization called Second Harvest. This was a place where local restaurants gave away food they didn't use. The volunteers packed up the food, and then they distributed it to people who needed it.
    "You're a big kid now," said Uncle Robert. "You can stay with your cousins on Saturdays. Instead, I will see you on the weekdays."
    "But I want to go to the museum with you, and baseball games, and movies. Why do you have to ruin our Saturdays packing fruit?" Jason whined.
    "Your dad worked on this with the city council. He hates throwing away perfectly edible food. It is a good program, and I want to get involved."
    "My dad set it up?" Jason asked. He was surprised. His parents had not told him anything about it.
    "Yes. Your mom helped, too," said Uncle Robert. "It's a family thing."
    "Well, if it's a family thing, then I should be there," said Jason. "I can spend time with you, be a part of my parents' program, and help people, all at the same time!"

What did Jason like to do with his uncle on Saturdays?

Why did Jason change his mind about the food program?

Safety First, Gold Next

 Safety First, Gold Next

    You say you're going for the gold at the next X Games? What's your specialty--snowboard superpipe, or maybe bicycle dirt jump? You've got the right equipment, a good coach, and the will to win. What else do you need?

    You'll need to practice safety. Athletes in the X Games wear proper protective gear, which usually includes a helmet. Other safety equipment can include mouthpieces to protect teeth in bumps and falls, and protectors for knees, elbows wrists, and shins.

    To impress the judges with daring stunts, it's important to keep any equipment, such as a skateboard or bicycle, in good working order. Equipment should be checked regularly and properly maintained.

    During practice or performance at the X Games, it's important to stay alert and aware. Look out for hazards such as loose gravel or rocks. One little pebble on a bike track can send you flying over your handlebars.

    Warm up properly before you practice or compete, and if you feel pain, don't ignore it. Get medical help right away.

    "Safety has to come first in extreme sports," says Carlos, an action sports athlete. "I always wear a helmet, even when I'm just practicing bicycle stunts. My brain is my most important tool in action sports, and I want to protect it."

    Whether action sports are just a pastime or a ticket to the X Games, safety should come first. Then you can concentrate on nailing that triple twist and winning the gold.